Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Human Rights & Science (JMSHRS)
Volume 7, Issue 10, April 2025 | SDGs: 1 | 5 | 10 | 16 |
#RethinkProcess ORIGINAL SOURCE ON: https://knowmadinstitut.org/journal/
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.15424312
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Human Rights & Science (JMSHRS)
Volume 7, Issue 10, April 2025 | SDGs: 1 | 5 | 10 | 16 |
#RethinkProcess ORIGINAL SOURCE ON: https://knowmadinstitut.org/journal/
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.15424312
Volume 7, Issue 10, April 2025 | SDGs: 1 | 5 | 10 | 16 |
Submited: 2024-10-10 | Accepted: 2025-04-05 | Issued: 2025-04-15
Integrating Deflection into Rule of Law and SDG Programming for UN Peace Operations
Nixon M. Camilien*
EN | Abstract:
This paper contends that deflection practices are relevant strategies to enhance Rule of Law and advance Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in United Nations (UN) peace operations. Deflection, which involves redirecting individuals from the criminal justice system to supportive services, addresses the root causes of criminal behavior, alleviates the burden on judicial and prison systems, and fosters community trust. This holistic approach aligns with the UN's goals of sustainable peace and development. The paper also discusses the challenges of implementing deflection programs in countries with sometimes limited community resources and ongoing conflicts.
Key Words: Deflection, United Nations Peace Operations, Rule of Law, Sustainable Development, Drug Policy, SDG 4, SDG 5, SDG 10, SDG 16, SDG.
ES | Abstract:
Este documento sostiene que las prácticas de desviación son estrategias relevantes para mejorar el Estado de Derecho y promover los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) en las operaciones de paz de las Naciones Unidas (ONU). La desviación, que consiste en redirigir a las personas del sistema de justicia penal a servicios de apoyo, aborda las causas profundas del comportamiento delictivo, alivia la carga de los sistemas judicial y penitenciario y fomenta la confianza de la comunidad. Este enfoque holístico se ajusta a los objetivos de paz y desarrollo sostenibles de la ONU. El documento también analiza los retos que plantea la aplicación de programas de desviación en países con recursos comunitarios a veces limitados y conflictos en curso.
Palabras clave: Deflexión, Operaciones de Paz de las Naciones Unidas, Estado de Derecho, Desarrollo Sostenible, Política de Drogas, ODS 4, ODS 5, ODS 10, ODS 16, ODS.
United Nations peace operations have been instrumental in advancing the rule of law and implementing security sector reforms, which are essential for fostering stability in post-conflict regions. Since its founding in 1945, the UN has authorized over 70 peace operations globally (United Nations, 2023a). These missions focus on building robust legal frameworks and effective security institutions to restore stability, protect civilians, uphold justice, and promote human rights. Through a combination of technical assistance, capacity building, and policy guidance, the UN collaborates closely with host country authorities to strengthen judicial systems, enhance law enforcement capabilities, and combat impunity. This comprehensive approach not only supports the maintenance of peace and security but also lays the groundwork for sustainable development and long-term prosperity in the affected areas (United Nations, 2008).
Deflection and diversion are innovative practices designed to redirect individuals away from the traditional criminal justice system and toward supportive services. Deflection occurs when law enforcement officers guide individuals—often those involved in minor offenses or experiencing mental health or substance use issues—to community-based services rather than arresting them. Pre-arrest diversion involves intervening before formal charges are filed, offering access to treatment programs, social services, or restorative justice initiatives. These approaches help reduce the burden on the criminal justice system, decrease recidivism, and address the underlying issues contributing to criminal behavior, ultimately fostering a more humane and effective approach to public safety (Charlier & Reichert, 2021; Price-Allan et al., 2023).
This paper argues that deflection is highly relevant for promoting the rule of law and advancing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in UN peace operations. Integrating these strategies into UN peace operations can enhance the effectiveness of rule of law initiatives, reduce recidivism, decrease court backlogs and prison overcrowding, and contribute to the overall stability and rebuilding of justice systems in conflict-affected areas. By redirecting individuals—particularly those involved in minor offenses or those affected by substance abuse and mental health issues—towards supportive services instead of traditional punitive measures, deflection helps address the root causes of criminal behavior (Charlier & Reichert, 2021). This approach alleviates the burden on overextended judicial and law enforcement systems and fosters community trust and cooperation (Berman & Feinblatt, 2005). Deflection strategies promote restorative justice and community-based solutions, which are essential for long-term peace and stability (UNODC, 2020b). By prioritizing rehabilitation over punishment, deflection aligns with the UN's broader targets for the SDGs, promoting a more humane and just society (Penal Reform International, 2018; UNDP, 2020). Consequently, the UN should leverage its rule of law and SDG mandates to assist post-conflict societies in planning, designing, implementing, and evaluating deflection programs.
The term "deflection" is relatively new in the field of criminal justice, emerging as a response to the growing recognition that traditional methods often fail to address the underlying health needs of individuals. Deflection encompasses a broad spectrum of practices that involve collaboration between the community, emergency services, the criminal justice system, and treatment providers. It includes elements of diversion, where individuals are redirected away from the criminal justice system, and referral, where they are guided towards appropriate health and social services. Often used interchangeably with "diversion" or "referral," deflection represents a dual approach aimed at enhancing both public health and public safety, particularly for individuals struggling with mental health issues and substance use disorders (Charlier & Reichert, 2021; Price-Allan et al., 2023).
Initially, diversion programs primarily targeted juveniles, emphasizing rehabilitation over punishment. In the early 20th century, the juvenile justice system in the USA began experimenting with alternatives to incarceration, such as probation and community service, as part of a broader movement to reform the juvenile justice system. Progressive reformers believed that juveniles were fundamentally different from adults and thus required different treatment under the law. They argued that rehabilitation, rather than punishment, should be the primary goal of the juvenile justice system (Bernard & Kurlychek, 2010).
Probation became one of the first major alternatives to incarceration. Juveniles placed on probation were allowed to remain in their communities under the supervision of a probation officer. This approach aimed to provide guidance and support to help juveniles avoid future delinquent behavior. Studies have shown that probation, when effectively implemented, can reduce recidivism and support the social reintegration of juvenile offenders (Schwalbe et al., 2012).
Community service emerged as another alternative to incarceration. This approach required juveniles to perform unpaid work in their communities as a way of making amends for their offenses. Community service programs were designed to instill a sense of responsibility and empathy in juveniles while avoiding the negative consequences of incarceration (Bazemore & Maloney, 1994; Bazemore & Umbreit, 1995).
A key aspect of diversion programs is their focus on addressing the underlying behavioral issues that contribute to juvenile delinquency. These programs often include counseling, educational support, and family interventions. They help juveniles develop the skills and resilience needed to lead productive lives, ultimately contributing to safer and more cohesive communities (Petrosino et al., 2010). By tackling the root causes of delinquent behavior, diversion programs aim to prevent future offenses and promote long-term positive outcomes for juveniles (Lipsey, 2009).
Recent studies continue to support the effectiveness of community-based interventions in addressing juvenile delinquency. For example, a comprehensive review by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention in its 2022 National Report emphasizes the notable impact of community-based programs in reducing recidivism and improving mental health outcomes for juveniles (Puzzanchera, Hockenberry, & Sickmund, 2022). The report highlights successful diversion programs across various states, showcasing innovative approaches that have yielded positive outcomes in reducing recidivism and supporting youth development. These findings underscore the ongoing evolution and success of juvenile diversion programs in addressing the complexities of juvenile delinquency while fostering rehabilitation and community integration.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the deinstitutionalization movement in mental healthcare highlighted the need for alternative approaches to handling individuals with mental health issues, as the closure of mental health institutions led to a rise in encounters between these individuals and the criminal justice system (Grob, 1995). This awareness was further fueled by studies showing statistically higher rates of serious mental disorders in the incarcerated population compared to the public (Fazel & Danesh, 2002). In response, initiatives such as Crisis Intervention Teams (CIT) and mental health courts were established to provide treatment rather than incarceration for individuals with mental health disorders. CIT programs, which train police officers to recognize and appropriately respond to mental health crises, have been shown to reduce the use of force and increase the likelihood of individuals receiving proper mental health care (Compton et al., 2008). Similarly, mental health courts focus on providing comprehensive case management and access to mental health services, which have been found to reduce recidivism and improve mental health outcomes for participants (Lowder et al., 2018; Otto, 2020; Steadman et al., 2001).
The war on drugs in the 1980s and 1990s brought a surge in incarceration rates, prompting further exploration of alternatives to traditional criminal justice responses (Drug Policy Alliance, 2015). Drug courts emerged as a notable example, focusing on treatment and rehabilitation for substance abusers rather than punitive measures (National Institute of Justice, 2011). These specialized courts provide offenders with an opportunity to receive intensive supervision and therapy aimed at addressing the root causes of their addiction. Participants in drug court programs typically undergo regular drug testing, attend counseling sessions, and appear before the court frequently to monitor their progress.
Studies have shown that drug courts can significantly reduce recidivism rates and improve outcomes for participants. For example, a comprehensive review by the National Institute of Justice found that drug court participants were less likely to be rearrested and more likely to find employment compared to those who went through traditional court processes (National Institute of Justice, 2006, 2011). The NIJ's Multisite Adult Drug Court Evaluation (MADCE) found that drug courts are more cost-efficient than traditional case processing, with net benefits averaging between $5,680 and $6,208 per participant (National Institute of Justice, 2011). The success of drug courts has led to their widespread adoption across the United States, with over 4,000 drug courts in operation as of 2024 (National Treatment Court Resource Center, 2024).
The principles behind drug courts have influenced the development of other specialty or problem-solving courts, such as veterans’ courts or domestic violence courts, which similarly aim to address the underlying issues contributing to criminal behavior (ICJIA, 2023; Berman and Feinblatt, 2005). These courts represent a broader shift towards therapeutic jurisprudence and restorative justice, prioritizing rehabilitation and reintegration over punishment. This shift has been supported by growing evidence that addressing behavioral health issues within the judicial system can lead to better long-term outcomes for individuals and communities (Clemente & Padilla, 2020; Marlowe, 2010).
The early 21st century has seen a more systematic and widespread adoption of deflection, acknowledging the limitations of traditional criminal justice responses to low-level offenses and behavioral health issues. The opioid epidemic, with its devastating toll of overdoses and deaths, has particularly driven some communities to prioritize life-saving interventions over incarceration. In its current form, deflection is implemented across six pathways, each reflecting different strategies designed to redirect individuals from the criminal justice system to supportive services, addressing the root causes of criminal behavior (Charlier & Reichert, 2021).
These pathways collectively help to reduce recidivism, alleviate the burden on the criminal justice system, and promote public safety by addressing underlying issues such as mental health and substance use disorders.
Programs like Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD), which began in Seattle in 2011, exemplify modern deflection strategies. LEAD allows police officers to redirect low-level offenders, particularly those with substance use disorders, mental health issues, or those engaged in sex work, to community-based services instead of arresting them (Clifasefi et. al, 2017).
The success of LEAD has been substantial. Evaluations have shown that participants are significantly less likely to reoffend compared to those processed through the traditional criminal justice system. Specifically, a study found that LEAD participants had 60% lower odds of arrest within six months of entering the program compared to a control group (Collins & al., 2017). These promising outcomes have inspired similar initiatives across the United States, such as the Angel Program in Gloucester, Massachusetts, and the STEER (Stop, Triage, Engage, Educate, Rehabilitate) program in Montgomery County, Maryland.
Globally, deflection practices have been adopted and adapted to fit various cultural and legal contexts. LEAD's principles have influenced programs in countries like Canada, the United Kingdom, South Africa and Australia, where law enforcement agencies are increasingly integrating public health approaches into their work (Price-Allan et al., 2023). These programs underscore the shift towards harm reduction and the importance of connecting individuals with community resources to prevent future interactions with the criminal justice system (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2021).
Some European countries, such as the Netherlands or Portugal, have implemented progressive drug policies that prioritize treatment over criminalization. Portugal’s decriminalization of all drugs in 2001 and subsequent focus on harm reduction are noteworthy examples of deflection on a national scale (Greenwald, 2009). The Netherlands differentiates between "soft" and "hard" drugs, with a more lenient approach to cannabis, which is sold in licensed coffee shops. This policy aims to separate the markets for soft and hard drugs, reducing the exposure of cannabis users to more dangerous substances. The Netherlands has also implemented comprehensive harm reduction programs, such as needle exchange schemes and supervised injection sites, to reduce the negative health impacts of drug use (Rêgo et al., 2021). Both Portugal and the Netherlands illustrate how progressive drug policies focusing on public health and harm reduction can mitigate the adverse effects of drug use, offering a viable alternative to traditional punitive approaches.
In other parts of the world, deflection practices are gaining traction as integral components of broader efforts to reform justice systems and address public health crises. For instance, Kenya organized its first National Substance Use Prevention Summit to emphasize the importance of evidence-based approaches, community engagement, and policy reforms to combat the rising substance use problem (International Society of Substance Use Professionals, 2024). Additionally, several African countries, including Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Uganda, have established needle and syringe exchange programs, according to the Global Commission on Drug Policy (2023). These practices are increasingly viewed as viable alternatives to traditional punitive measures, which often exacerbate social and economic inequalities.
Other notable deflection initiatives were highlighted during the 2022 “Marketplace of Ideas” organized by the Global Law Enforcement and Public Health Association, with support from the UNODC, the Open Society Foundations, and the University of Melbourne. In addition to LEAD programs implemented in the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Vietnam, these initiatives include Police Referral programs in Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, as well as the Villa Maraini emergency unit and the 'Alternatives to Prison' project in Italy. These initiatives demonstrate the growing recognition of deflection as a vital, life-saving alternative to traditional criminal justice processing (Price-Allan et al., 2023).
The Global State of Harm Reduction 2022 report by Harm Reduction International provides a comprehensive overview of harm reduction policies and practices across the globe. Notable advancements include the expansion of needle and syringe programs (NSPs) in 92 countries and opioid agonist therapy (OAT) in 87 countries. Additionally, drug consumption rooms (also known as supervised injection sites) are now available in 16 countries, reflecting an increase in accessibility and availability of these critical services. The report also highlights substantial policy advancements, with 105 countries now integrating harm reduction into their national health strategies. Increased funding in certain regions has further enhanced the effectiveness of these programs. Moreover, there is a growing focus on community engagement, with affected communities taking a more active part in the design and implementation of harm reduction initiatives. These developments underscore the global shift towards more compassionate and evidence-based approaches to drug policy and public health.
As societal attitudes increasingly favor a rehabilitative and restorative approach to justice, deflection is set to become a central component of criminal justice reform efforts worldwide. The recognition of the need for humane and effective solutions to crime has already spurred major advancements in this area. Policymakers and community leaders are more frequently acknowledging the benefits of deflection strategies in reducing recidivism and addressing the underlying causes of criminal behavior. These efforts reflect a broader movement towards creating a more equitable and effective justice system.
Since 2017, the Police, Treatment, and Community Collaborative (PTACC) has been a leading advocate for deflection practices, expanding the number of deflection sites in the United States to approximately 1,600 by 2024. Internationally, PTACC is working with partners in various countries, including Tanzania, Botswana, Ukraine, Kenya, South Africa, Ghana, Italy, Uganda, and the UK, to develop deflection sites globally (PTAC Collaborative, 2023). The emergence of youth-focused deflection strategies is expected to further solidify the field, particularly with its emphasis on addressing the needs of juveniles.
In addition to PTACC, various international organizations are championing deflection initiatives. The Rome Consensus 2.0, for instance, is a coalition dedicated to minimizing drug-related harms through policies rooted in health, human rights, and evidence-based practices (Rome Consensus, 2024). The Global Commission on Drug Policy's statement on World Drug Day (June 26, 2023) also underscores the failure of repressive drug policies to achieve public health goals, highlighting the need for a shift towards evidence-based, health-focused strategies, including decriminalization and harm reduction.
The UNODC and the World Health Organization (WHO) have also contributed to this shift. In 2018, they produced a document titled Alternatives to Conviction or Punishment, which explores the benefits of non-custodial measures for drug-related offenses, such as improved public health outcomes, social reintegration, and reduced burden on the criminal justice system (UNODC & WHO, 2018).
Building on this approach, UNODC has integrated a deflection framework into its 2021-2025 global agenda, focusing on humanitarian practices. This agenda aims to enhance prevention, treatment, care, and rehabilitation services by implementing evidence-based practices aligned with WHO standards. The initiative targets vulnerable populations, including children, youth, women, and those in contact with the criminal justice system. Efforts include training local law enforcement and judicial officials on deflection strategies, supporting sustainable development, and enhancing stability, particularly in post-conflict regions (UNODC, 2022).
Additionally, the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) has incorporated deflection into its 2024 National Drug Control Strategy, emphasizing the importance of deflection at the highest levels of policymaking. This strategic inclusion reflects the growing recognition of deflection as a key tool in addressing substance use and related criminal behaviors at a national level (ONDCP, 2023).
Looking ahead, deflection programs are expected to continue evolving, with a focus on integrating innovative technologies and fostering cross-sector partnerships. This evolution will enhance the effectiveness of these programs and ensure they remain a critical part of efforts to create a more equitable and compassionate justice system. Emphasizing data-driven approaches and collaboration across sectors will help to maximize the impact of deflection initiatives and ensuring their sustainability in diverse contexts (PTAC Collaborative, 2018; Wisconsin Criminal Justice Coordinating Council, 2024).
The restoration of rule of law and security institutions in post-conflict societies is a central mandate of UN peace operations. This multifaceted effort involves collaboration across various UN agencies and bodies to rebuild governance, justice, and security systems. Among them, The UN Office of Rule of Law and Security Institutions (OROLSI) provides strategic and operational support to peace missions, with a focus on national ownership and sustainable reforms. OROLSI's mission covers policing, justice, corrections, security sector reform (SSR), and disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) (UN Peacekeeping, 2023). Here are some of the keyways in which the UN supports these efforts:
Establishing Security and Stability. UN peacekeeping missions play supports the establishment of security and stability in post-conflict areas by deploying military and police forces to maintain order and protect civilians. This security is foundational for creating an environment where the rule of law can be restored and sustained. Additionally, these missions implement disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) programs, which are essential for disarming combatants, disbanding armed groups, and reintegrating former fighters into civilian life. These efforts are critical for achieving long-term peace and security, as they address the root causes of conflict and prevent the resurgence of violence (United Nations, 2023b).
Strengthening Judicial and Legal Systems. UN missions assist post-conflict societies in strengthening their judicial and legal systems by supporting judicial reforms to ensure systems are fair, independent, and efficient. This includes training judges, prosecutors, clerks, and defense lawyers, and helping to rebuild court infrastructure that may have been destroyed or severely damaged during the conflict. Furthermore, these missions help draft and implement new laws that align with international human rights laws, humanitarian laws, and other relevant international norms. (UNODC, 2020a).
Promoting Human Rights and Accountability. UN peace operations monitor, report on, and address human rights abuses, helping to build a culture of accountability and respect for human rights. Through various channels, UN operations provide education and training on human rights to both the general population and officials involved in law enforcement and judicial processes. Additionally, UN missions support the establishment of transitional justice mechanisms, such as truth commissions, special courts, or reparation programs, to address past atrocities and promote healing and reconciliation. Efforts are also made to strengthen mechanisms that combat corruption within the judicial and legal systems, ensuring that those who commit crimes, including military and government officials, are held accountable (United Nations, 2023b).
Rebuilding and Reforming Security Institutions. UN peace operations are deeply involved in security sector reform (SSR), aiming to transform national security institutions, including the military and police, to become more accountable, effective, and respectful of human rights. This process typically involves comprehensive measures such as vetting personnel, providing training, offering technical assistance, and building institutional capacity. In many cases, it also includes restructuring security institutions to better align with democratic principles. An important aspect of SSR is the development of community policing practices that foster trust between law enforcement and the communities they serve, which is imperative for sustainable peace and security (United Nations Peacekeeping, 2022).
Supporting the Establishment of Prisons and Corrections Systems. OROLSI assist host countries in reforming their prison systems to ensure they meet international human rights standards, particularly regarding the humane treatment of detainees and access to justice. This support frequently includes the construction or rehabilitation of detention facilities that have been damaged or neglected due to conflict. In addition, like other security institutions, correctional services benefit from technical assistance provided by the UN in areas such as vetting, training, capacity building, and restructuring. These efforts are designed to ensure that correctional systems operate within the framework of the rule of law, uphold human rights, and provide security in an equitable and non-discriminatory manner (UNODC, 2011, 2013; United Nations, 2023).
Facilitating Political Processes and Governance. UN peace operations are instrumental in promoting the rule of law and good governance by supporting free and fair elections. These elections help establish legitimate, accountable, and representative governance structures, which are essential for upholding the rule of law. By providing technical and logistical assistance, the UN ensures that electoral processes are transparent and credible. Additionally, the UN Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) aids in strengthening electoral institutions, fostering democratic governance, and enhancing the stability of post-conflict societies (United Nations, 2024).
Capacity Building and Technical Assistance. UN peace operations provide robust capacity-building programs aimed at strengthening the rule of law in post-conflict areas. These initiatives target local authorities, security forces, and civil society organizations, offering specialized training in law enforcement, judicial processes, corrections, and human rights. By enhancing the expertise of local institutions, the UN ensures they can operate effectively and maintain the rule of law independently after the mission concludes. The UN Peacekeeping Resource Hub supports these efforts by offering evidence-based training materials and resources for personnel involved in these missions (United Nations, 2024).
Community Engagement and Public Outreach. Outreach to local communities and public information campaigns are essential components of UN peace operations. These missions work closely with local communities to understand their needs and concerns, fostering a collaborative approach to rebuilding society. They also conduct public information campaigns to educate citizens about their rights, the legal system, and the importance of the rule of law. This community engagement helps to build trust and support for the peacebuilding efforts, ensuring a more inclusive and effective process (UN Department of Global Communications, 2023).
The overarching goal of Rule of Law mandates in UN Peace Operations is to create a legal and judicial environment that can sustain peace, prevent the recurrence of conflict, and protect human rights (United Nations, 2004). These efforts are essential for fostering public confidence in the state and its institutions, which is critical for long-term stability and development. By addressing both the immediate needs for justice and the long-term requirements for a functional legal system, these mandates help to lay the groundwork for sustainable peace and security in post-conflict societies (United Nations, 2023b).
Deflection can enhance the effectiveness of rule of law programming by directing attention to the root causes of criminal behavior in post-conflict settings, reducing recidivism, and promoting a more equitable and just society. Here are several ways in which the incorporation of a deflection framework can contribute to those efforts:
Mental health and substance use issues are contributors to criminal behavior, often leading individuals into a cycle of crime due to impaired judgment, desperation for financial resources, or involvement in illegal activities to obtain substances (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2020). In the United States, approximately 37% of prisoners and 44% of jail inmates have been diagnosed with a mental health disorder, and about 65% of the prison population meets the criteria for substance use disorders (Bronson & Berzofsky, 2017). These issues are frequently interrelated, a condition known as dual diagnosis or co-occurring disorders, where mental health disorders can lead to substance abuse as a form of self-medication, and substance abuse can, in turn, exacerbate mental health issues. For instance, nearly 50% of individuals with severe mental disorders are also affected by substance use disorders (Chacon et al., 2021).
In post-conflict countries, trauma and prolonged stress often lead to high rates of mental health issues such as PTSD, depression, and anxiety. For example, a study conducted in Liberia found that 40% of ex-combatants suffered from PTSD and 44% from depression (Johnson et al., 2008). These mental health conditions can drive individuals to substance use as a coping mechanism, further exacerbating their mental health problems and increasing the likelihood of criminal activities. In Afghanistan, it was reported that 10% of the population (4 million people) is dependent on drugs, a figure that has been rising steadily since the conflict began (UN News, 2023). The combination of untreated mental health issues and widespread substance use creates a volatile environment where criminal behavior becomes more prevalent. In Sierra Leone, former child soldiers with untreated mental health problems were found to be 66% more likely to engage in violent crimes (Betancourt et al., 2010).
These statistics highlight the critical need for integrated mental health and substance use treatment programs in post-conflict settings to reduce criminal behavior and support societal rehabilitation. The prevalence of mental health disorders and substance use significantly impacts criminal behavior, perpetuating a cycle of violence and instability in these environments (Claro et al., 2015). The UN can leverage its rule of law mandate for the implementation of deflection programs as part of stabilization efforts in post-conflict regions. By promoting policies that prioritize mental health and substance abuse treatment, and by working with donors to generate funding and support for these initiatives, the UN can help rebuild communities, reduce recidivism, and foster sustainable peace.
In post-conflict regions, legal and correctional systems are often overwhelmed with cases and detainees, many of whom are involved in low-level offenses. Indeed, prison overcrowding is a recurring topic in written tests and hiring interviews for rule of law staff. UNODC (2013) reports that the aftermath of conflict often leads to a surge in detention due to weak judicial systems and a lack of alternatives to incarceration. Globally, the average prison occupancy level is at 103%, with some countries exceeding 200% capacity (Walmsley, 2021). Overcrowded prisons exacerbate poor living conditions, increase the risk of violence, and hinder rehabilitation efforts. In some prisons that I monitored during my work in peace operations, the overcrowding was so severe that there was no space for all the prisoners to lay on the floor at the same time, so they took turns to catch some sleep. This is a central issue in human rights reporting in almost all countries where the UN has a peace mission (UNODC, 2013; Penal Reform International, 2018).
To address overcrowding, governments sometimes issue amnesty or presidential grace. However, the impact is often limited as newly freed prisoners sometimes return to prisons due to the absence of reentry planning and reintegration programs (UNODC, 2013). For instance, in Nigeria, over 2,000 inmates were released in 2020 as a measure to curb COVID-19, yet recidivism rates remain high due to inadequate post-release support (Nigeria Correctional Service, 2020). Currently, the UN emphasizes comprehensive reforms, including improving legal frameworks, enhancing judicial capacities, and developing non-custodial measures to alleviate the pressure on prisons. These measures can be intentionally framed as part of a larger reform strategy, specifically seeking to institutionalize deflection pathways as alternatives to incarceration (Penal Reform International, 2018).
The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the potential of managing low-level offenders within the community, demonstrating that incarceration is not always necessary for maintaining public safety. Deflection programs, by diverting individuals from the traditional criminal justice system to community-based initiatives, helps to mitigate the spread of infectious diseases such as COVID-19 and HIV among incarcerated populations, which are high-risk environments due to overcrowding and limited healthcare access (Hawks, Woolhandler, & McCormick, 2020; Montoya-Barthelemy et al., 2020). These programs not only protect the health of individuals in custody but also benefit the broader community by preventing outbreaks from spreading beyond prison walls. Furthermore, deflection facilitates better access to treatment for substance use disorders and mental health issues, ensuring continuity of care through adapted services during the pandemic (Volkow, 2020).
Deflection programs and non-custodial measures, such as community service, probation, and electronic monitoring, have been shown to reduce prison population effectively. For example, in the Netherlands, the implementation of alternative sentencing has contributed to a 43% reduction in the prison population over the last decade (Aebi & Tiago, 2020). The goal is to alleviate overcrowding by ensuring that only those who pose a high risk to public safety are detained, while others can benefit from alternative measures that support their reintegration into society. These reforms are fundamental in promoting a more humane and effective criminal justice system that aligns with international human rights standards (UNODC, 2013; Penal Reform International, 2018).
The UN can incorporate deflection as a strategy to address prison overcrowding in post-conflict societies by using deflection pathways as foundational elements for developing an effective system of alternatives to incarceration. Such a system would require a coordinated approach involving the justice system, healthcare providers, and community organizations (Price-Allan et., 2023). In this framework, the justice system would identify suitable candidates for alternatives to incarceration programs and ensure legal compliance, while the healthcare system would deliver necessary treatment and rehabilitation services. Meanwhile, community organizations would provide support networks and reintegration services, facilitating the successful reintegration of individuals into society. This comprehensive approach promotes long-term community stability and safety, ensuring that each sector is adequately equipped to fulfill its mission (National Institute of Justice, 2011). By building the capacity of each sector, the UN can foster sustainable peace and security in post-conflict regions.
Integrating deflection programs into Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) frameworks can enhance the effectiveness of both initiatives. As a key mandate in most peace operations, demobilization involves discharging ex-combatants from armed duties and dismantling military or rebel units. This process is often conducted alongside disarmament, where neutral actors collect weapons and ammunition from former combatants. Reintegration, the final component of DDR, focuses on reinserting demobilized combatants into civilian life by providing education, vocational training, and psychosocial support. (United Nations, 2014)
While disarmament and demobilization are concrete and measurable, reintegration poses more complex challenges due to the difficulty in assessing long-term outcomes and the variability in individual adaptation (Muggah & O'Donnell, 2015). The challenges faced in reintegrating demobilized combatants are like those encountered in the reentry process of ex-offenders following incarceration (McIvor & Shirlow, 2009). Both processes require overcoming societal stigma, overcoming the psychological effects of demobilization or imprisonment, rebuilding social networks, and securing stable employment—critical factors in preventing recidivism or a return to conflict. Reintegration is especially challenging in cases involving repatriation and resettlement, as witnessed with the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Deutsche Welle, 2015).) If reintegration efforts fail, demobilized soldiers may turn to substance abuse, engage in criminal activities, or relapse into armed groups.
The risks associated with a botched reintegration underscore the critical need for comprehensive programs that address the multifaceted economic, social, psychological, and community needs of former combatants to achieve lasting peace. According to the United Nations Operational Guide to the Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Standards (IDDRS), effective DDR programs should adopt a holistic approach, ensuring that former combatants receive the necessary support for sustainable reintegration (United Nations, 2014).
Deflection programs, which provide alternatives to incarceration by connecting individuals with essential services, may complement DDR efforts by offering access to case management, healthcare, substance use and mental health treatment, housing, education, and employment. These programs can improve public health and safety by reducing risks such as stigmatization and social exclusion. By integrating the deflection approach into the DDR framework, comprehensive support can be provided to address both the immediate needs of demobilization and the long-term challenges of reintegration, thereby enhancing stability and well-being.
Deflection programs are designed to build trust between criminal justice agencies and the communities they serve. By emphasizing support over punishment, these programs foster positive interactions between law enforcement and the public. Deflection initiatives connect individuals with essential services such as healthcare, housing, and education, addressing the underlying issues that contribute to criminal behavior, such as substance use and mental health challenges. This compassionate approach helps to reshape the perception of law enforcement from enforcers of punishment to supporters of community well-being. As a result, deflection programs enhance the legitimacy of criminal justice agencies, reducing stigmatization and promoting trust.
In post-conflict countries, where law enforcement of used excess forces against parts of the population, the UN can facilitate the rebuilding of trust. By promoting the adoption of humanitarian criminal justice policies and community-based programs like deflection, the UN helps law enforcement agencies shift focus towards rehabilitation. The UN's support through programmatic funding, training, and technical assistance empowers law enforcement and community organizations to plan and implement these programs effectively, fostering cooperation and trust.
Moreover, by facilitating dialogue among government bodies, NGOs, and community leaders, the UN ensures that deflection programs are tailored to the specific needs of each community, further enhancing their effectiveness. These collaborations not only create safer communities but also position law enforcement as partners in public safety rather than as oppressors. This shift is essential for developing policing practices that prioritize rehabilitation and support, ultimately building stronger, more cohesive, and peaceful communities (Charlier, 2023; Penal Reform International, 2018; UNDP, 2020; UNODC, 2022)
Deflection programs and restorative justice initiatives share common objectives, such as rehabilitation, harm reduction, community engagement, and reducing recidivism, making their integration a powerful approach to fostering safer communities. Restorative justice programs involve mediated dialogues between all stakeholders affected by a criminal incident. These dialogues aim to acknowledge harm, agree on a resolution that promotes healing within the community, and focus on reconciliation and accountability in a constructive manner, rather than relying on traditional court proceedings (Klofas, Hipple, & McGarrell, 2010).
Deflection programs, which emphasize collaboration between law enforcement and community organizations, align well with restorative justice principles by prioritizing support and positive behavioral change over punishment. The integration of these two approaches creates a comprehensive framework that not only addresses immediate justice needs but also fosters long-term community healing and stability.
The UN has long promoted restorative justice principles, as evidenced by the UNODC’s second edition of the Handbook on Restorative Justice Programmes (2020b). By combining restorative justice with deflection programming, the UN can leverage its global influence to encourage countries to adopt models that emphasize accountability, community engagement, and rehabilitation. Through funding, training, and policy guidance, the UN can facilitate the widespread implementation of these integrated programs, contributing to a more restorative and humanitarian justice system (UNODC, 2020b; Penal Reform International, 2018).
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 ambitious objectives established by the UN in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals aim to tackle a wide range of global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, and the promotion of peace and justice (United Nations, 2015). By fostering economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection, the SDGs represent a universal call to action to create a sustainable world for future generations (UNDP, 2020).
Deflection programs embody a holistic approach that addresses multiple SDGs simultaneously. The UNODC (2020b) has highlighted the importance of deflection strategies in achieving these goals, particularly SDG 16, which promotes peaceful and inclusive societies. The alignment of deflection programs with SDG targets offers an opportunity for UN peacekeeping missions to integrate these strategies into stabilization efforts and rule of law initiatives. Specifically, deflection programs can help advance the following goals and targets:
Deflection programs can reduce poverty by providing resources and support to individuals who might otherwise become entangled in the criminal justice system. These programs are particularly effective in addressing the complex interplay between incarceration, substance use, mental health challenges, and economic instability (Borelli, B., 2023). Individuals at risk of incarceration often struggle with substance use disorders and mental health issues, which can perpetuate poverty and limit opportunities for economic mobility. By extending beyond substance use treatment, deflection programs ensure that participants are connected to employment opportunities, housing, education, and social services, thereby improving their overall economic circumstances.
Managing individuals within the community rather than through incarceration not only reduces costs but also allows participants to maintain employment and support their families, contributing to greater economic stability. The financial savings generated from diverting individuals from the criminal justice system can be redirected to social programs that address poverty more broadly, thereby amplifying the positive impact on community well-being (Korchmaros et al., 2022; Wagner & Rabuy, 2017; Subramanian, Henrichson, & Kang-Brown, 2015). By tackling these systemic issues, deflection programs not only help individuals avoid incarceration but also contribute to breaking the cycle of poverty and criminal justice involvement, promoting broader social equity.
Target 3.5: Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol. The treatment of substance use disorders is a central component of deflection and diversion programs. Drawing on the success of drug courts in the United States, advocates argue that substance use issues should be treated primarily as medical concerns rather than criminal offenses, with a focus on treatment over incarceration. These programs often provide access to essential health services, particularly for substance abuse and mental health treatment, which reduces the burden on the criminal justice system and improves individual health outcomes (Marlowe et al., 2006; National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2020).
By linking individuals to necessary healthcare services, including mental health and substance use treatment, deflection programs help reduce the prevalence of untreated health issues, promote overall well-being, and lower the risk of reoffending. In this way, deflection programs directly contribute to achieving SDG 3 by integrating health-focused interventions into the criminal justice framework, thereby enhancing public health and safety (Penal Reform International, 2018; National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2020).
Deflection programs are essential to provide specialized support and services to women and girls who are sometimes both victims and perpetrators of violence. These programs help reduce their interaction with the criminal justice system while addressing their unique needs. According to UN Women (2021a, 2021b), adopting a gender-responsive approach is necessary when delivering police and justice services, particularly for women who have been victimized or have engaged in criminal behavior due to their circumstances. A survivor-centered approach, as emphasized by UN Women, ensures that interventions are sensitive to the gender-specific experiences of women and girls, both as victims and as individuals who may have resorted to crime because of trauma or systemic inequalities.
The PTAC Collaborative’s strategy for "Children & Family" underscores the importance of targeted support for women and girls affected by the criminal justice system, especially those who are mothers. Deflection and diversion programs that offer resources such as counseling, educational support, and community services are essential for keeping families together, mitigating the adverse effects of justice involvement, and supporting women and girls in their efforts to thrive (PTAC Collaborative, 2024). Moreover, these programs address the needs of women who may be perpetrators, ensuring they receive appropriate, trauma-informed interventions.
By integrating gender-responsive services, deflection programs contribute to breaking the cycle of trauma and criminal justice involvement across generations. This comprehensive approach is needed to protect vulnerable women and girls, ensuring they receive the necessary support to recover and reintegrate safely into society. This approach not only advances the achievement of gender equality and the elimination of violence against women and girls but also strengthens the capacity of police services to respond effectively to the specific needs of women (Penal Reform International, 2018).
Target 10.2: Empower and promote the social, economic, and political inclusion of all.
Deflection programs are essential in reducing the disproportionate impact of the criminal justice system on marginalized communities, thereby promoting inclusion and reducing inequalities based on race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and other exclusionary factors (Magnusson S., Dezember, A & Lovins, B. 2022). As emphasized by the United Nations, reducing inequality within and among countries is critical to ensuring that no one is left behind in the pursuit of sustainable development (United Nations, 2023c). The interconnectedness of poverty, incarceration, and inequality is thoroughly explored in a report by Brianna Borrelli in Georgetown Law's Journal on Poverty Law and Policy (2023), which details how mass incarceration exacerbates economic instability and deepens social inequality. The report highlights how incarceration disproportionately affects marginalized communities, particularly African Americans and Latinos in the United States, contributing to cycles of poverty that limit access to economic mobility and perpetuate conditions leading to further criminal justice involvement. To break these cycles, the report emphasizes the need for policy interventions such as criminal justice reform, poverty reduction strategies, and investments in education and employment opportunities.
Another report from Rona Epstein (2023), titled "The Rich Get Treatment, The Poor Go to Prison: Imprisonment for Contempt of Court," discusses how socio-economic disparities influence the outcomes of legal proceedings in the UK, particularly regarding contempt of court charges. The article argues that wealthier individuals often have access to treatment and other alternatives to incarceration, while poorer individuals are more likely to be imprisoned. This discrepancy highlights broader inequalities in the criminal justice system, where economic status is a determining factor of whether an individual receives support or punishment. The article calls for reforms to ensure that justice is administered more equitably, regardless of an individual's financial resources.
By providing tailored support and interventions, deflection programs promote equity and fairness within the criminal justice system, ensuring that vulnerable individuals receive the help they need rather than being disproportionately punished. This includes mental health counseling, substance abuse treatment, and community-based services that address the root causes of criminal behavior. These interventions are fundamental for breaking the cycle of incarceration and recidivism that many vulnerable individuals face, ultimately contributing to a more equitable society (Hawken et al., 2014).
This SDG aligns with deflection through three key targets:
A deflection framework can significantly advance SDG 16 by contributing to the development of more effective, accountable, and transparent institutions. According to the PTAC Collaborative's 2022 document, Equity in Deflection: Ensuring Fairness and Access in Deflection Programs, it is imperative to incorporate equity into deflection programs to ensure they are fair, accessible, and effective for all participants. The document emphasizes the importance of addressing disparities that may arise, particularly for marginalized communities who might face barriers to access or unfair treatment (PTAC Collaborative, 2022).
Deflection programs also contribute to improving community relations by promoting trust between law enforcement and the communities they serve. As highlighted by Charlier (2023) in Deflection: A Powerful Crime-Fighting Tool that Improves Community Relations, deflection initiatives help shift the focus from punishment to support, enhancing the legitimacy of law enforcement and fostering stronger community ties. This shift is an important step for building institutions that are seen as transparent, responsive, and inclusive.
For these programs to be effective, transparent, and accountable, rigorous data collection and analysis are essential. Systematic data gathering enables the measurement of outcomes such as recidivism rates, participant satisfaction, and overall community impact (Charlier, 2023; Labriola et al., 2023; R Street Institute, 2023). The insights gained from these evaluations can inform broader rule-of-law initiatives, resulting in more effective and evidence-based policies (Hawken et al., 2023). This data-driven approach ensures that deflection programs are continuously refined and improved, making them more responsive to the needs of vulnerable populations, such as individuals with mental health disorders, substance use issues, and youths.
Additionally, evidence from successful deflection programs can be shared across jurisdictions, promoting the adoption of best practices on a larger scale. Through its research and funding bodies, the UN can support these efforts by facilitating international collaboration, data collection, and sharing, providing training and technical assistance, and encouraging the implementation of evidence-based deflection policies and programs. These initiatives contribute to building more just, effective, and humane criminal justice systems globally, ensuring that policies are grounded in solid evidence and tailored to achieve the best outcomes for all individuals (UNODC, 2022; Penal Reform International, 2018).
Implementing deflection in post-conflict settings presents several challenges that vary depending on the context. These challenges must be identified during the planning and implementation stages to ensure the effectiveness and sustainability of deflection programs. Here are some common challenges that are likely to arise in most contexts:
The stigma surrounding addiction and mental illness has deep historical roots, often resulting in misunderstanding, mistreatment, and marginalization. Michel Foucault’s analysis in Madness and Civilization (1961) highlights how power dynamics and societal biases have historically shaped the treatment of mental illness, leading to the isolation and exclusion of individuals with mental health conditions. These issues persist today, with many people suffering from mental illness still facing substantial stigma and inadequate care globally (World Health Organization, 2021).
Similarly, the stigma surrounding drug addiction is pervasive and often rooted in misconceptions, such as viewing addiction as a moral failing rather than a medical condition. This stigma can deter individuals from seeking treatment and further marginalize those in need, as drug treatment centers are frequently seen as places for criminals rather than healthcare facilities (Global Commission on Drug Policy, 2019; Espin García et al., 2021).
To combat these stigmas, a comprehensive health system approach is needed, which includes public education, supportive policies, and the integration of addiction treatment into mainstream healthcare. It is also essential to consider the cultural context when designing anti-stigma programs to ensure they are effective and culturally sensitive (Mascayano et al., 2020). By addressing these challenges, we can work towards a more inclusive and supportive healthcare system that treats addiction and mental illness with the dignity and respect they deserve (Atkins, Dopp, & Temaner, 2022; UNODC, 2022).
Deflection programs, which aim to redirect individuals from the criminal justice system to appropriate care, are heavily reliant on the capacity of the treatment sector and access to necessary services. However, in post-conflict settings, these critical components are often severely compromised. The treatment infrastructure is frequently under-resourced, with limited access to essential medications and a shortage of trained personnel. Conflict-related disruptions, including damage to infrastructure, exacerbate these challenges, making it difficult to provide consistent and effective treatment services (UNODC, 2022). This lack of resources and infrastructure poses a sizeable obstacle to the successful implementation of deflection programs.
In countries with ongoing conflicts and hard-to-reach areas, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, these challenges are even more pronounced, severely hindering the effectiveness of deflection efforts. Security risks are paramount, with medical personnel and facilities often targeted by violence, deterring healthcare providers from working in these regions and further depleting available resources (Debarre, 2018). Additionally, access barriers such as ongoing violence, blockades, and destroyed infrastructure can prevent healthcare professionals from reaching those in need, making it difficult for deflection programs to operate effectively.
Resource scarcity is another access issue that can hinder the implementation of deflection programs (Evans & Sekkarie, 2017). In many conflict zones, there are severe shortages of medical supplies, equipment, and trained healthcare professionals, exacerbating existing health crises. Even when some infrastructure or trained personnel are available, access to services and medication remains a considerable obstacle due to geographic barriers, mistrust of authorities, social stigma, and ongoing security threats. Economic barriers, such as the cost of transportation, medication, and treatment services may further limit access, especially for impoverished populations.
These challenges highlight the urgent need for stronger international cooperation, enhanced protection for medical personnel, and the development of more resilient healthcare systems capable of functioning under extreme conditions. Additionally, meticulous planning of deflection programs is necessary, with particular attention to the potential challenges that could arise in post-conflict settings. Without addressing these barriers, deflection programs may not deliver evidence-based and timely interventions, ultimately derailing or severely limiting their effectiveness in promoting peace and stability.
While deflection is a mechanism to build trust in criminal justice institutions as argued above, the lack of trust in those institutions is also an obstacle for any initiative that require cooperation between those institutions and the community. That is because, in post-conflict settings, trust in governmental and law enforcement institutions is often severely diminished due to past abuses or failures. The reliance on police as gatekeepers is particularly problematic considering their vocation as enforcers of the law (Hoffer et al., 2021; Price-Allan et al, 2023). Furthermore, the political environment in post-conflict settings can be volatile, with ongoing tensions and power struggles (UNODC, 2011). All this can complicate efforts to reach out to some communities, build trust around deflection, and foster collaboration among stakeholders.
Political and institutional resistance to judicial reforms can hinder the implementation of deflection programs. Much like other types of reforms, resistance can be linked to a lack of information on the extent of the problem in a particular community. Often, policymakers and national stakeholders underestimate the impact of substance use or mental health issues, attributing them to foreign problems that do not affect their communities. Other times, people may be skeptical that deflection can work in their communities due to high levels of crime or the high prevalence of substance use and mental health issues. Resistance can also come from groups or people who see deflection as being soft on crimes. Strategies to build consensus and foster national ownership include engaging stakeholders, using data to demonstrate effectiveness, implementing pilot programs, raising public awareness around needs using data, and facilitating policy dialogues (UNODC, 2011).
The UNODC has been involved in providing estimates and predicting trends of drug use on a global basis (UNODC, 2024). The UN Country Team has the capacity to support data collection and the dissemination of research findings at the national and disaggregated levels to determine the extent of the problem and how much intervention or prevention is needed. Additionally, the UN could assist in establishing baselines, defining goals, and performing cost-benefit analyses to inform policy options (UNODC, 2022).
Engaging stakeholders involves including a diverse group of participants, such as law enforcement, healthcare providers, community leaders, and individuals directly affected by substance use and mental health issues. This inclusive approach ensures that multiple perspectives are considered, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges and potential solutions. Such an approach not only enhances the effectiveness of programs but also builds trust and collaboration among stakeholders, which is decisive for the sustainable implementation of interventions (Jones & Sawyer, 2022; Mascayano et al., 2020). Pilot programs can serve as evidence of success, showcasing reductions in recidivism rates and improvements in public health outcomes (SAMHSA, 2020).
The UN can leverage its public information system to launch public awareness campaigns aimed at dispelling misconceptions and educating communities on the benefits of deflection programs. (UN Department of Global Communications, 2023). These campaigns can feature successful case studies and present statistical data to demonstrate the positive impacts on both individuals and the broader community. Furthermore, facilitating policy dialogues allows for open communication between policymakers, practitioners, and the public, ensuring that policies are not only well-informed but also widely supported.
Addressing the challenges of implementing deflection programs in post-conflict settings requires comprehensive planning, community engagement, and continuous monitoring and evaluation. These efforts are key to adapting strategies to the evolving needs of these regions. By understanding and tackling these challenges head-on, deflection programs can be more effectively implemented, ultimately promoting peace, security, and development in post-conflict areas.
Incorporating deflection into UN peace operations for rule of law and security sector reforms is essential for fostering a more humane, efficient, and effective criminal justice system. These programs address the root causes of criminal behavior, alleviate the burden on the justice system, and enhance community trust and safety, ultimately contributing to long-term stability and the achievement of sustainable development goals. Despite potential challenges, the United Nations, donors, and local stakeholders should actively support the design and implementation of deflection initiatives to build more just and resilient societies.
I would like to express my gratitude to all colleagues and organizations who graciously reviewed this paper prior to its submittal for publication.
* Nixon M. Camilien, PhD
Criminal Justice Consultant
Lecturer at DePaul University, Chicago
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4723-7885
Requests to authors – Nixon M. Camilien, [email protected].
About the Author:
Nixon M. Camilien is a criminal justice expert with over 20 years of experience in reentry, reintegration, peacekeeping, law enforcement, and program administration. His career includes 13 years at the Illinois Department of Corrections' Parole Division and five years as a corrections advisor for UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Côte d'Ivoire, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Nixon holds a PhD in Criminology, Law, and Justice, and is a staunch advocate for restorative and humane crime resolution. His work with the Police, Treatment, and Community Collaborative (PTACC) highlights his commitment to evidence-based strategies for crime prevention and public safety.
WAIVER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to all those who have contributed to the production of this paper.
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